The Roles of Science and Religion

The Roles of Science and Religion Free Online Research Papers â€Å"Science today is as much a natural product of history as any religious system.† The term ‘natural product of history’ is coined from the idea of beliefs, practices and objects being changed through time and inevitably, the process of creating these products, somehow or rather, tend to involve human activity. The effects and suggestions to the statement â€Å"Science today is as much a natural product of history as any religious system.†as related to the study of science and religion will be discussed further in this essay. The study of religion attempts to recognize the different aspects of religion through the use of intellectual disciplines. There are various reasons as to why a student chooses to study religion. Possible reasons could be the impact of religion upon global politics, the claim that religions convey truths by which human beings should live, to understand the influence of religion upon other disciplines of high historical values such as art and music, and could also be to find a religion in which to believe in. To be a good student of religion, one has to practice open-mindedness and learn to co-exist with another individual with a different religious belief. Putting own practices and assumptions aside, a good student of religion detaches himself from his own religion and is able to typify religions like how objects are typified. In short, the way to study religion is to be an outsider. In the study by Eileen Barker on Transcendental Meditation, or TM as it is widely known, Barker, an expert on new religious movements, took an approach as an outsider and discussed on the status of TM. Analyzing the practices and beliefs of TM compared to common religions such as Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism and Islam, Barker felt that TM is not a religion, but a religious movement. Of course, to provide such a definition or rather explanation as to whether a discipline is a religion or otherwise, careful analysis has to be made. To aid such analysis, students of religions made use of different methodologies in identifying a religion from another. A student could use definitions of religions in his analysis of a religion. There are two types of definitions which a scholar can use to distinguish the characteristics of religions – Functional and Substantive Definitions. While using substantive definition is found to be narrow, many scholars favor using functional definition. A functional definition concentrates not on what religion is but on what these beliefs and practices do for the individual or social group. One approach to functional definition would be using Ninian Smart’s 7-dimensional model of religion. Smart’s model is found to be flexible and is designed to be specific. It studies religion from an objective point of view. However, in any study models, there are sure to have weaknesses. Therefore, it is essential for a scholar to be practical and explicit in their search for evidence. A dimensional model of religion, on its own, is probably insufficient. A better approach to define religions would then be using both functional and substantive definitions and models in combination. The history of man has shown the constant influences of religion, and so the study of religion, involving the effort to recognize its significance, its origins, and its countless forms, has become progressively more important in this modern time. Scientific discoveries and systems began to challenge religious beliefs. Known scientists like Galileo and Newton all played considerable roles in challenging the standard views at their time. While science is based on observation, religion makes point of view analytical in nature and requires some unquestioned faith. In spite of leading human through somewhat different course, both try to uncover the basic. Thus, the goal, in both cases, is to establish the elements of what shape the reality. Science is always based on evidence, trial-and-error, about observation and investigations, while religion is neither. Science is governed by natural laws and understandable in mathematical and physical terms. Many people trust the information science offers rather than religion because the facts that science offers seem to be more trustworthy. No matter how true these facts are, one still has to go back to the initial point before making any judgements. Let us now return to the underlying principles that govern the study of science and religion. The two principles, namely naturalism and symmetry are highly observed by historians of science. In the case study of Christian dogma in Baur and the Tubingen School, the approach to the analysis is considered symmetrical. This refers to the knowledge and claims on all sides that is explained symmetrically, without respect to who was or is now though to be right or wrong. On the other hand, the approach to naturalism is to treat religious or scientific ideas with natural explanations rather than supernatural. An example would be the products of ordinary historical causes and effects. This is more likely to be used by outsiders of religions. Just as the study of religion has their method to help students understand its process and history, Science historians too adopt their own methodologies. The two-track method and contextualist method both have their own strengths. Whichever methods one choose to use, the important things to ensure are there should not be any personal involvements in beliefs and one has to objective in his/her understanding the boundaries between science and religion. Both science and religion have parts to play in the creation of the universe but they just convey themselves in different forms. Neither science nor religion is an infallible method to move towards the nature of reality but when working together they can provide both a question and an answer, just in different ways. 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A Report from a meeting on the 4see model Essay

A Report from a meeting on the 4see model - Essay Example Representatives present †¢ Simon Roberts-Director Foresight Innovation and Incubation Group, Arup. †¢ Nigel Goddard a Director in School of Informatics at the University of Edinburgh †¢ Colin Axon - A Senior Researcher at School of Engineering and Design in Brunel University, Uxbridge, †¢ Barney Foran - Institute of Land Water and Society, Charles Strut University †¢ Benjamin Warr-Director of Environmental Services and Senior Environmental Scientist, GeoQuest Ltd, Modeling paradigm Mr. Goddard took the attendees through the modeling paradigm of the 4see model. He informed members that it differs from other macroeconomic modeling methods. It expresses constraints between components of the macro economy as equations which describe how they affect each other, and then uses iterative time-stepped simulation to evolve the model of the system forward in time. A key principle in 4see modeling is handling of distinctly different classes of flows. The full 4see- GB mo del of the UK economy includes ten distinct flows which are distinguished by having differing characteristics and being non-substitutable to each other in the short term. (Roberts) Modeling principles Mr. Goddard further went on to explain that the approach to creating the model follows a simple principle: that supply follows demand but is constrained in the short term by physical infrastructure or the inputs needed for output. There were concerns on the deterministic approach and corrective approach. Mr. Goddard went on to say that deterministic approach controls the need for inputs. Where as reconciliation between demands on the right and supply of the distinct separate flows is by the corrective approach. Finally, most of the final demand in the model is...The 4see model also identified process flows. The variables of major interest, such as flows of goods and services, were not modeled as stocks and flows in the system dynamics sense, but were assumed to be consumed in the same time-period in which they were produced - there is no modeling of inventory. In system dynamics terms, they we considered being auxiliary variables. The identified fixed capital stocks in the economy with the system dynamics stock concept. This was a reflection of the categorical difference in 4seemodels between fixed capital stocks and other types of stocks such as inventories.(Roberts).We presented a macro-economic modeling framework based on deterministic and corrective approaches that enabled us to reproduce the historical data with a small number of exogenous parameters. The model was grounded in standard national macroeconomic data that conformed to international conventions of data-holding and duration.

Human resources management in practice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Human resources management in practice - Essay Example Additionally, there are two types of feedback. Action feedback occurs when you can see by the other person's actions whether or not your communication has been understood. For example, when presenting an idea, the person who is receiving the information executes it. Your action feedback is the receiver executing your instruction, or advice. Person feedback, the second type however, can be more difficult. Oftentimes, people do not want to appear to be foolish or unintelligent. Accordingly, they will lie and say "I understand" when indeed they do not. Sir Jones offers an alternative manner of assessment one's understanding. He suggests that speaker ask "What would you do first" Jones outlines communication barriers and how to overcome them in way which is easy to understand. His charges are especially instructive. Jones instructs that there are various types of communication but of import to this lecture, focus is keenly on the nonverbal types of communication. This section is especially interesting because one is rather aware of the nonverbal communications in the social setting but not in the organisational setting. However, by noting the barriers and following Jones' instruction, communication within the organisational construct can be far more successful thus leading to effective leadership. Recruiting people who are wrong for the organisation c... A job vacancy provides the perfect opportunity to consider restructuring, or to reassess the requirements of the job (Pearn and Kandola 1993). A notification of a job vacancy should be clear. It should clearly and accurately set out the duties and responsibilities of the job and should include those items outlined within the article (Couwood 2005). Moreover, there is a detailed outline of suggested items to place in a job posting advertisement. Each of these items allow the employer and employee to come to the table with a clear description of what is expected and what is sought. Required abilities should be expressed in terms of the standards required, not just in terms of the task to be undertaken. The sifting stage can help the organisation by providing feedback on the advertising process and the suitability of the application form. It can also identify people who might be useful elsewhere in the organisation. To avoid any possibility of bias, such sifting should be undertaken by two or more people. If there are too many possible candidates, then they should be weighed up against the desirable qualities specified. Further, if the job involves practical skills, it may be appropriate to test for ability before or at the time of interview. This is generally acceptable for manual and word processing skills, but less useful for clerical and administrative posts. There are various tests that organisations can apply to prospective candidates. Finally, the most common process of recruitment is The most common type of interview used in the selection process is a structured interview with a traditional format. It usually consists of three phases. The introductory phase covers the greeting, small talk, and an overview of which

Legal vs Illegal Drugs Essay Example for Free

Legal vs Illegal Drugs Essay Drugs are a common part of everyday life. In fact, it is highly likely that there are drugs of some sort in your cupboard. They are classified into two categories: legal and illegal. Legal drugs include alcohol, tobacco, and pharmaceutical drugs, while illegal drugs include marijuana, amphetamines and heroin. The media often portrays a biased, negative view on illegal drugs, however legal drugs often have the same effects as illegal drugs, if not worse. Illegal drugs can cause severe damage to the body, especially those of a teenager, whose bodies are still growing. The brain, heart, and other important organs are all affected by drugs. . For example, cocaine can cause heart attacks and in severe cases, deaths may occur. According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime as well as other published literature, researchers estimate that between 149 and 271 million people worldwide use illegal drugs, and data from the World Health Organisation (WHO) suggests that a quarter of a million people die from this drug use in 2004. This amount is relatively small compared with the 2. 25 million deaths caused by alcohol, and the 5. 1 million deaths caused by tobacco, which are both legal drugs. However, it cannot be denied that illegal drugs can lead to harsh physical health problems, and are a serious problem. Although illegal drugs may provide a short-lived burst of pleasure, longer-lasting harmful effects are often experienced afterwards, leading to long-term mental health problems. They affect the mood, behaviour and perspective of an individual, and often cause serious misjudgements. In severe cases, this may lead to death. LSD is one hallucinogenic drug that can cause serious mental health problems. After taking LSD, flashbacks may occur, days or even moths afterwards. The sudden appearance of these flashbacks result in disorientation, anxiety and distress. In fact, the experience of hallucinating may cause paranoia, phobia and ideation, which all may last for long periods of time, if not permanently. Often, a growing tolerance to illegal drugs may occur, leading to users being forced to take higher dosages in order to achieve the same result. This is extremely dangerous. Long lasting psychoses such as schizophrenia or severe depression may manifest as a result of a discontinuation of a drug, as well as prolonged anxiety and depression. The mental state of an individual will almost indefinitely deteriorate trough the use of illegal drugs. The use of illegal drugs can have devastating effects on your life. Due to the difficulty in obtaining these drugs, the street prices are much higher. Cannabis, for instance, costs $30/gram. Therefore, to support an illegal drug habit, you may have to be involved in criminal activity, such as theft. This will indefinitely have legal consequences. Just this month, in Malaysia, police have uncovered a new trend where youngsters are stealing motorcycles in order to trade them for drugs. Twenty -three motorcycle thieves were arrested, aged between 17 and 38. In addition to the illegal behaviour itself, the use of illegal drugs may make you less likely to keep appointments or engage with health services, making it much harder to seek help. Illegal drugs can cause vast disruption and destruction to your life, and is extremely hard to seek support for. On the other hand, in Australia, there are far more health problems and drug-related deaths from legal drugs. Legal drugs are approved after testing on limited populations. Everybody reacts differently, and there is a chance that you may be the person with the genetic predisposition that reacts differently than any other person who had previously been tested. These side effects can damage serious organs, and possibly be fatal. In June 2012, one such instance occurred. Nineteen-year-old Alex Heriot died after taking Benzo Fury at a Scottish music festival, which is a legal substance with a similar effect to ecstasy. Benzo Fury is one of the cheap new legal highs developed to bypass the banning of similar, illegal drugs. In the US, at least 106,000 people die each year even from properly prescribed drugs, with more than two million suffering serious side effects, which is an extremely high amount compared to the 10,000-20,000 deaths per year in America due to illegal drugs. Although pharmaceuticals may be prescribed by a doctor, there may still be serious side effects, and pose a high risk to your health. The false sense of security provided by pharmaceutical companies feeds into dependency and outright addiction more than illegal drugs. Although they were created to help individuals cope with the effects of illness and injury, many prescriptions drugs have become the â€Å"substance of choice† for the addicts who use them illicitly. The most commonly abused prescription drugs fall into three categories: Opiods, which produce a euphoric effect due to their pain killing abilities for short-term or chronic pain, Central Nervous system depressants, which have a calming, relaxing effect on the brain, and Stimulants, which increase brain energy for alertness and energy, and they are often abused for these effects. Xanax, for example, is a highly addictive benzodiazepine. Usually used to treat panic disorder and serious anxiety, many people have become addicted to it due to its fast acting sedation and relaxation effects. In Victoria alone, Benzodiazepines were responsible for 3, 135 deaths in 2010 and 2011, and in terms of drug related deaths, they were the second highest to alcohol. A 2012 Victorian report found that 65% of all forged Benzodiazepine prescriptions were for Xanax. Pharmacists have also reported that it is not uncommon for them to see prescriptions for 100 or 200 tablets, which is extremely worrying for a product that has no proven benefit beyond short-term use. Legal drugs are highly addictive and commonly abused. Alcohol and tobacco are one of the leading contributors to drug –related deaths. There are many effects of alcohol, including cancer, heart disease, kidney disease, liver disease, obesity, physiological disturbances, and many more. Similarly, tobacco and smoking also lead to many adverse physical health effects, such as various forms of cancer (predominately lung cancer), infertility, and cardiovascular disease. According to the Government of South Australia, alcohol is a leading contributor to 30% of road accidents, 12% of suicides, 44% of fire injuries, and 34% of falls and drownings. There are roughly 3000 deaths and 65,000 hospitalisations from alcohol, each year, costing a community a sum of around $15 billion, according to the Australian Government, whilst an illegal substance such as cocaine is the cause of only 15-25 Australian deaths every year according to the ABS. In Australia, smoking is the largest preventable cause of death and disease, and around every 28 minutes, an Australian dies from tobacco-related diseases. In fact, more deaths are caused each year by tobacco use than by all deaths from human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), illegal drug use, alcohol use, motor vehicle injuries, suicides, and murders combined. From a survey conducted in 2002, by the age of 14, around 90% of children have tried alcohol some time in their lives. These two drugs are one of the most dangerous drugs, and the increasing number of people abusing them is highly worrying. In conclusion, both legal and illegal drugs pose a great danger. Illegal drugs are prohibited due to their strength and addictive qualities, however many legal drugs replace the illegal ones, and cause thousands of deaths and millions of diseases every year. I believe that legal drugs are worse than illegal drugs, as they are both cheap and easy to abuse due to their availability. However, with the right prescriptions and control, I believe that legal drugs could become less of a problem.

Red Scare :: essays research papers

Analysis of the Red Scare "The tumult and the shouting dies, The captains and the kings depart." -Kipling, The Recessional Mr. Kipling was wrong. War does not always end with the last cry on the battlefield. World War I certainly did not. After the war formally ended on November 18, 1918, there was an ideological war still going on in the US. An ideological war which prompted mass paranoia and caused, among many other things, what would be known as the Red Scare, which began in 1919 and ended in 1921. Red Scare was the label given to the actions of legislation, the race riots, and the hatred and persecution of "subversives" and conscientious objectors during that period of time. It is this hysteria which would find itself repeated several decades later in history when Senator Joeseph R. Macarthy accused high government officials and high standing military officers of being communist. Undoubtedly the most important topic of an investigation into a historical occurrence is its inception. What caused the Red Scare? At the heart of the Red Scare was the conscription law of May 18, 1917, which was put in place during World War I for the armed forces to be able to conscript more Americans. This law caused many problems for the conscientious objector to WWI, because for one to claim that status, one had to be a member of a "well-recognized" religious organization which forbade their members to participation in war. did Quaker relief work in Europe. 500 suffered court-martial, and out As a result of such unyeilding legislation, 20,000 conscientious objectors were inducted into the armed forces. Out of these 20,000, 16,000 changed their minds when they reached military camps, 1300 went to non-combat units, 1200 gained furloughs to do farm work, and 100 of these, 450 went to prison. However, these numbers are small in comparison with the 170,000 draft dodgers and 2,810,296 men who were inducted into the armed forces. Nevertheless, the conscientious objectors were targeted in the Red Scare after the war. They were condemned as cowards, pro-German socialists, although that was not everything. They were also accused of spreading propaganda throughout the United States. Very few conscientious objectors stood up for themselves. Roderick Siedenberg, who was a conscientious objector, wrote that "to steal, rape, or murder" are standard peacetime causes for imprisonment, but in time of war "too firm a belief in the words of Christ", and "too ardent a faith in the brotherhood of man" are more acceptable.

Explain how the men and women in Shakespeare’s Othello misunderstand each other

Analysing the male and female relationships in William Shakespeare's Othello it is clear the sexes fail to understand each other, particularly on the men's part. Whilst the women are more mature and tend to overestimate the men, the men are consumed by their vanity and reputation and cannot accept women honestly. Desdemona and Othello's lack of understanding for each other contributes to their miscommunication. Othello cannot fully trust Desdemona because his love his too idealistic and he fails to comprehend her honest and realistic approach to love: She loved me for the dangers I had passed And I loved her that she did pity them. This implies that Desdemona's affections fuel his ego and he loves her for this more than anything else. Othello's worshipping of Desdemona prohibits him from truly understanding her: O my fair warrior! †¦If it were now to die, ‘Twere to be most happy; for I fear My soul hath her content so absolute That not another comfort succeeds in unknown fate.† He does not perceive her as human and capable of fault: †¦And when I love thee not, chaos is come again. Desdemona on the other hand does not romanticise Othello, but approaches their love realistically and maturely. She loves Othello for the person he is and does not shy from the topic of consummation: I saw Othello's visage in his mind. That I did love the Moor to live with him, †¦ if I be left behind†¦ The rites for which I love him are bereft me†¦ However, as much as Othello cannot understand her honest approach to love, nor can she comprehend his connection between their love and his honour. In this respect she overestimates Othello and fails to see his capacity for jealousy: †¦I think the sun where he was born Drew all such humours from him. Unwittingly, she wounds his pride by lying about the handkerchief and pursuing Cassio's disposition: I say it is not lost†¦ This is a trick to put me from my suit. Pray you let Cassio be received again. The women are seen by the men as possessions and criteria for their honour. Othello cannot conceive that Desdemona is her own person and could have emotions and opinions separate to his. She shows her assertiveness when she defends Cassio, but in doing so questions Othello's judgment. â€Å"You'll never find a more sufficient man.† Where sexuality is concerned, he seeks complete control over her. Her faithfulness is not only needed for his ego, (â€Å"Cuckold me!†) but the possibility that Desdemona has sexual desires frightens and bewilders him: †¦O curse of marriage That we can call these creatures ours And not their appetites! Iago also reflects this possessiveness over his wife. He accuses Cassio and Othello of having leapt into his ‘seat' which implies he owns Emilia, and is astounded when she defiantly reveals his malice at the end: I will not charm my tongue†¦ What, are you mad? I charge you get you home. Brabantio's response to his daughter's marriage holds a similar attitude. Desdemona, a â€Å"maiden never bold,† so still and quiet that she was scared of her own shadow, has been â€Å"stolen† from him. He clearly does not understand his daughter well for we soon see she is strong and assertive: That I did love the Moor to live with him. My downright violence and scorn†¦ May trumpet to the world.† Throughout the play Roderigo's behaviour is a prime example of how the men view the women as possessions. Hopelessly romanticising Desdemona, (who is not aware of his existence, let alone his love for her) he relentlessly pursues her attempting to purchase her through Iago: Therefore make money†¦ I'll sell all my land. Iago speaks of Othello's marriage in terms of piracy and of Desdemona as a treasure ship, reinforcing his ideas of women as possessions: †¦he hath tonight boarded a land-carack. Interestingly, Emilia comments on this weakness of all men. In contrast to the men's complete misconceptions about women, Emilia shows awareness and perceptiveness of the opposite sex. She does understand that men stereotype women and forget they have their own minds: †¦Let husbands know their wives have sense like them: they see and smell, And have palates for both sweet and sour As husbands have. She recognises the jealousy of men's natures. They are not ever jealous for the cause, But jealous for they are jealous. However, although she succinctly predicts what is behind Othello's behaviour, for all her worldliness, she fails to pinpoint the blame to her own husband. This suggests that maybe she doesn't know him that well to consider him capable of such malice. â€Å"The Moor's abused by some most villainous knave.† Preoccupied with honour, the men categorise women into either ‘whores' or ‘Madonnas,' and fail to recognise them as individuals. Desdemona, a real ‘lady,' is continually referred to as â€Å"divine† and all the men greatly esteem her. Their respect is close to worship. Casio says: You men of Cyprus, let her have your knees. Hail to thee, Lady! Roderigo swears he loves her enough to â€Å"incontinently drown† himself. Even Iago says â€Å"Now I do love her too†¦Ã¢â‚¬  and suggests he would like to sleep with her. Bianca, on the other hand, is immediately shunned for being a prostitute and is not worthy of such high regard. The play's humanisation of her undercuts the men's one-dimensional perception: I am no strumpet, but of life as honest As you that thus abuse me. Unlike Desdemona, men cannot align their honour with such a woman as she has been ‘used' and is no longer ‘pure.' In contrast to his approach to the ‘divine Desdemona' Cassio says of Bianca, â€Å"I marry her! What! A customer!† He is indifferent to her love for him, and Bianca does not realise that he will never take her seriously but always see her as a whore: ‘Tis such another fitchew! Marry, a perfumed one! Desdemona does not understand how men can label women ‘whores' for she insists that such a woman does not exist, and she therefore does not understand men's preoccupation with honour: -tell me, Emilia – That there be women do abuse their husbands In such gross kind? Misogynistic attitudes perpetrated by Iago and eventually developed in Othello reveal a distrust of women, and affirm the lack of understanding between the sexes. To Iago, all women are whores. â€Å"You rise to play and got to bed to work.† He is rude to his own wife and unhesitatingly kills her. â€Å"Villainous whore!† (He stabs her.) With Iago's manipulation, Othello adopts these views and his ‘divine' Desdemona falls straight from Madonna to whore. She has tainted his reputation and wounded his ego, (or so he believes) and he must kill her before she corrupts other men. â€Å"Yet she must die, else she'll betray more men.† His words to her become bitter and scathing: I took you for that cunning whore of Venice That married with Othello. The combination of their honour and misunderstanding of women makes the men easily jealous. We see this in their quickness to damn their wives as adulteresses without concrete evidence. Othello is so distrusting, the absence of a handkerchief becomes the ‘ocular' proof, when ironically he has seen nothing. His jealousy makes him willing to condemn. â€Å"Damn her, lewd minx!† Iago also accuses his wife with unfounded suspicion of sleeping with Cassio and Othello: He's done my office. I know not if it be true, But I, for mere suspicion in that kind, Will do as if for surety.† The men and women in Othello do not understand each other. The men's preoccupation with honour and romantic ideals of love, leads them to misunderstand women viewing them as either whores or Madonnas and possessions for men. The women, in contrast, are more mature and realistic. However women such as Desdemona overestimate the men and are unable to empathise with their attitudes, or recognise their jealous natures.

What Is a Ziggurat Ancient Temples of the Middle East

Most people know about the pyramids of Egypt and the Mayan temples of Central America, yet the Middle East has its own ancient temples, called ziggurats, that arent as familiar. These once towering structures dotted the lands of Mesopotamia and served as temples to the gods. It is believed that every major city in Mesopotamia once had a ziggurat. Many of these step pyramids have been destroyed over the thousands of years since they were constructed. One of the  best-preserved ziggurats is Tchongha  (or Chonga) Zanbil in the southwestern Iranian province of Khuzestan. Description A ziggurat is a temple that was common in Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq and western Iran) during the civilizations of Sumer, Babylon, and Assyria. Ziggurats are pyramidal but not nearly as symmetrical, precise, or architecturally pleasing as Egyptian pyramids. Rather than the enormous masonry used to make the Egyptian pyramids, ziggurats were built of much smaller sun-baked mud bricks. Like the pyramids, ziggurats had mystical purposes as shrines, with the top of the ziggurat the most sacred spot. The first ziggurat dated back to around 3000 BCE to 2200 BCE, and the latest dates from around 500 BCE. The legendary Tower of Babel was one such ziggurat. It is believed to have been the ziggurat of the Babylonian  god Marduk. Herodotus Histories includes, in Book I, one of the best-known descriptions of a ziggurat: In the middle of the precinct there was a tower of solid masonry, a furlong in length and breadth, upon which was raised a second tower, and on that a third, and so on up to eight. The ascent to the top is on the outside, by a path which winds round all the towers. When one is about half-way up, one finds a resting-place and seats, where persons are wont to sit some time on their way to the summit. On the topmost tower there is a spacious temple, and inside the temple stands a couch of unusual size, richly adorned, with a golden table by its side. There is no statue of any kind set up in the place, nor is the chamber occupied of nights by any one but a single native woman, who, as the Chaldeans, the priests of this god, affirm, is chosen for himself by the deity out of all the women of the land. As with most ancient cultures, the people of Mesopotamia built their ziggurats to serve as temples. The details that went into their planning and design were carefully chosen and filled with symbolism important to the religious beliefs. However, we dont understand everything about them. Construction The bases of ziggurats were either square or rectangular and 50 to 100 feet long per side. The sides sloped upward as each level was added. As Herodotus mentioned, there may have been up to eight levels, and some estimates place the height of some finished ziggurats around 150 feet. There was significance in the number of levels to the top as well as the placement and incline of the ramps. Unlike step pyramids, these ramps included external flights of stairs. Some monumental buildings in Iran that might have been ziggurats are believed to have had only ramps, while other ziggurats in Mesopotamia used stairs. Excavations have found multiple foundations on some sites, done over time. With the deterioration of the mud bricks or the destruction of the entire edifice, succeeding kings would order the structure rebuilt on the same location as its predecessor. Ziggurat of Ur The Great Ziggurat of Ur near Nasiriyah, Iraq, has been thoroughly studied, leading to many clues regarding these temples. Early 20th-century excavations of the site revealed a structure that was 210 by 150 feet at the base and topped with three terrace levels. A set of three massive staircases led to the gated first terrace, from which another staircase led to the next level. On top of this was the third terrace, where it is believed the temple was constructed for the gods and priests. The interior foundation was made of mud brick, which was covered by baked bricks laid with bitumen (a natural tar) mortar for protection. Each brick weighs approximately 33 pounds and measures 11.5 by 11.5 by 2.75 inches, significantly smaller than those used in Egypt. Its estimated that the lower terrace alone required around 720,000 bricks. Studying Ziggurats Today Just as is the case with the pyramids and Mayan temples, there is still much to be learned about the ziggurats of Mesopotamia. Archaeologists continue to discover new details about how the temples were constructed and used. Preserving what is left of these ancient temples has not been easy. Some were already in ruins by the time of Alexander the Great, who ruled from 336 to 323 BCE, and more have been destroyed, vandalized, or have deteriorated since then. Tensions in the Middle East have not helped our understanding of the ziggurats. While its relatively easy for scholars to study the Egyptian pyramids and Mayan temples to unlock their secrets, conflicts in this region, especially in Iraq, have significantly curbed similar studies. The Islamic State group apparently destroyed the 2,900-year-old structure at Nimrud, Iraq, in the second half of 2016.